Develop Systems Essay

Unit 501 – use and develop systems that promote communication Learning outcome 1. Be able to address the range of communication requirements in own role. 1.1 Review the range of groups and individuals whose communication needs must be addressed in own job role. Individuals who have communication problems need support to enable them to express themselves effectively. Therefore it is vitally important in a managerial or senior role to both be aware of the individuals preferred method of communication and also to support this method effectively. Communication is a basic human right highlighted in the human rights act 1998 where it states that all individuals have the right to ‘freedom of expression’ therefore it is each person’s right to communicate their needs and preferences using their chosen method. If an individual were unable to communicate effectively or were denied the support to do so then they would essentially be denied their freedom of expression and would be withholding a basic human need and right. In residential child care there are a number of groups of people which communication may present challenges. Although they are presented as groups for the purpose of this learning outcome, each person should be treated as an individual and their communication needs assessed and addressed accordingly. As communication is a reciprocal process around 80% of communication is non-verbal which includes facial expression, posture and eye contact as well as the spoken word. Read more:  Use and Develop Systems That Promote Communication Essay Autism Individuals with autism have communication disorders which can make it difficult to communicate and interact with their environment. For example echolalia, which is repeating words spoken to them without knowing or understanding them, using phrases out of context and misreading others non-verbal cues. Also, lack of eye contact and limited ability to initiate and sustain interactions due to a limited concentration span. Learning disabilities A vast percentage of individuals with a learning disability have some form of specific communication need and can be affected on a scale from mild to severe. Emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD) People who have EBD may not present with any noticeable communication difficulties per se but certain tones, volume or non-verbal actions may act as a barrier to communication and should be noted as a particular action could act as a trigger and potentially cause emotional distress. 1.2 Explain how to support effective communication within own job role In a managerial or senior role it is imperative to support and promote effective communication within the workplace both with the service users and the staff. This is established through firstly assessing the needs and then providing the appropriate support which would meet those needs and overcome any potential barriers to effective communication, thus promoting the individuals rights to freedom of expression. Before one can offer support an assessment would be made regarding their preference and choice and their baseline by observing the ways in which the individual communicates and the methods used. Everyone involved in the individuals care is made aware of the individual’s baseline and needs and preferences regarding communication and any changes are recognised during reviews and team meetings to ensure the individual’s needs are met. Key people involved with the individual may need to work using a joined up process to access information and support to ensure you get the best out of an individual’s communication abilities. These would include family, friends, therapists, school staff as well as the care and management staff. Effective communication improves the quality of life of people. It is essential that every effort is made to enhance communication, make time to listen and to understand empathically the individual’s perspective. To ensure this is adopted and promoted on an organisational level, adequate training and supervision must be undertaken. From an individual level, positive role modelling and an open culture are to be used to enable effective communication and minimise potential barriers. 1.3 Analyse the barriers and challenges to communication within own job role Communication is a fundamental relationship building skill in the workplace. If people don’t communicate well they limit their ability to connect on any meaningful level and therefore potentially cause conflict. Also with a senior or managerial role in the workplace people will have expectations of how they should communicate with others. The general social care council’s code of practice states that communications should be conducted in an appropriate, open, accurate and s traightforward way. By  communicating in this way others will have trust and confidence in you and your abilities. Workplace relationships become a lot stronger when people can clearly and effectively communicate what they need and allow others to do the same. There are many potential barriers to effective communication. Anything which blocks the meaning of a communication is a barrier and they are as follows: Language difference – this could be the choice of words used such as professional jargon or a report or explanation which is worded in a way in which the meaning is lost. Physical barriers – these are due to the physical environment such as noise level or distraction, inappropriate temperature, inappropriate lighting or also your positioning while communicating for example standing too close and invading personal space. Equally, positioned too far away would also act as a barrier. Psychological barriers – personal problems or issues can lead to a lack of concentration or engagement. Stereotyping – when on individual had a preconception about another individual, it makes it difficult for one to view the others communication without prejudice. 1.4 Implement a strategy to overcome communication barriers Regarding the young people I work with it was deemed appropriate to promote an effective communication platform for them to share their views and opinions on the running of the home, any changes they would like to make and to play an active role in planning the week ahead. This meeting agenda was a direct result of poor engagement from the young people and therefore not fully embracing their own personal preferences and choice in their lives. The new agenda format gives the young people the opportunity to have significant input via an informal platform as the formal approach was seen as a significant barrier to participation in the past. Also the opportunity to confidentially highlight concerns through their own personal agenda (placed in their draw each Monday morning) breaks down the physical barrier of having to raise it amongst their peers without feeling embarrassment or uncomfortable. While engaging in this meeting it is the responsibility of the staff to ensure the lighting is of an adequate level and the temperature is comfortable. More importantly it is their responsibility to ensure the young people have their say and open and honest communication is adopted and supported in an appropriate manor. 1.5 Use different means of communication  to meet different needs There are many different means of communication which may include one or more of the following: Verbal – communication is a two way process and it is important when communicating to listen as well as speak. In a senior or managerial role it is vitally important to adapt communications depending on who you are communicating with. For example you would communicate differently with a service user, a psychologist and a member of care staff. These would differ in the formality of the conversation and in the language or professional terminology used. Non – verbal – more than 90% of what we communicate is through non-verbal communication. This is demonstrated through our body language – our posture, how we stand, hand movements, facial expression and eye contact. Body language plays such an important role in communicating effectively as things like smiling and nodding seem like insignificant gestures but in reality they play such an important role in communicating by highlighting the interest in what is being said. Sign – this is commonly the use of sign and symbols. It requires training to effectively communicate with the intended audience. BSL is the use of signs and symbols as a communication aid to those with hearing loss. Makaton is used as an aid to support speech but not to replace it.

The effects of implementation

One may ponder how the school came to be such a beautiful place, that even visitors and strangers pause for admiration. To begin with, in the year 1950-1951 through energetic Mayor Marcia V. Marino, the school of Sat. Brigade was initiated to be opened. During those days the school site was purely a wilderness and abode of wild animals. Luckily in July 1950, some of the loyal and hardworking men in the persons of Mr.. Severe De Leon Villain, and Mrs.. Richard Cruz a barrio lieutenant, and P. T. A. President.They made a petition signed by all the residents of the place that the community Is In dire need of a school site and building to house their future and present citizens. With God's blessing the petition was granted and approved In August 1952 with Mr.. Potential Antonio being the first supervisor. Through his dynamic guidance and supervision a school building was sprung up from the good coordination, help and untiring effort to good people of Sat. Brigade. A lady teacher was assi gned in the person of Miss Marcela Orbs to organized Grade I classes.The class was first housed temporarily in a private house until finally a school site has been surveyed by Engineer Felon Radon and approved by the government under proclamation No. 51 Series of 1962 by the late President MacDougal. Immediately In 1953 a P. T. A. Building was constructed In the school site spear headed by Mr.. Richard Cruz, the barrio captain, and parents of the community, with special mention to the late Mr.. Alexandra ABA, the chief carpenter who made the school building reached Its completion.Year In and year out additional crowded In until finally in June 1958-1959 a complete primary grades were opened under the head teacher Mr.. Edgar Artist. Year 1961-1962, intermediate classes were opened thus made Sat. Brigade a complete elementary school. His administration was marked by the construction of one Marco's type, 2 Type B-A, and one P. T. A. Building. But time flew so fast that by the year 1969 -1970. Mr.. Edgar Artist was transferred to Room Elementary School and was placed by Mrs.. Slalom B. Rodeos cashed teacher.During his first year of office a permanent fence, flagpole and concrete water- sealed toilet was constructed all of which were donated by the good people of Sat. Brigade and at the same time a Marco's Type Building was constructed and completed too. By 1972-1973, the school got a lion share from the ten percent (10%) tax collection, which made the completion of two more buildings and P. T. A. building now seen at the west side of the school site. The following year she was promoted Into a Principal, and together with her promotion was the construction of another

Do We Need Education For Sustainable Living Environmental Sciences Essay

Sustainable life is about a life style that reduces an person ‘s or society ‘s usage of planetary natural resources ( Ainoa et al. 2009 ) . For sustainable life, we should carry on our lives in ways that are consistent with the nucleus rules of sustainability, in natural balance and respectful of humanity ‘s symbiotic relationship with the Earth ‘s natural ecology and biological rhythms ( CELL, 2010? ) . Such a life manner requires that we make serious efforts to cut down our C footmark by changing diet, energy ingestion and transit methods ( Winter, 2007 ) . Brown ( ? ? ? ) has described sustainable life in the twenty-first century as switching to a renewable energy-based, reuse/recycle economic system with a diversified conveyance system. It is by and large recognized that instruction is the most of import factor in bettering the quality of life and for heightening chances for single development. However, it has merely late been realized that instruction is the decisive factor in turn toing the present crisis related to environmental instability. The extent of the planetary environmental debasement crisis has merely come into focal point because of the multiple and repeated dismaies being raised over the effects of clime alteration. However, turn toing the multiple menaces to the sustainability of humanity within the twenty-first century is an tremendous challenge affecting educating and re-educating people on a battalion of complex and inter-related constructs. Education must hold a dominant function in traveling towards sustainable life since it is the individual most of import factor in bettering the quality of life. Science instruction is indispensable in accomplishing societal development through environmental co nsciousness. Education must be the advocator for environmental sustainability being a moral duty for all. Traveling towards environmental sustainability involves educating communities on the strength of present environmental debasement and actuating them to cut down their ecological footmark based on acquired cognition and experience. Higher instruction is peculiarly relevant to work outing the crisis of clime alteration ( Hales, 2008 ) . It is seasonably that higher instruction should concentrate on scientific discipline and technology for the development of new engineerings for preservation of H2O and energy supplied and learn communities how to populate and work sustainably. Specially structured educational plans are needed. These should be multidisciplinary to cover all facets that relate to sustainable life, must holistically turn to the entire energy, H2O and C footmarks of lifestyle picks, and explicate how these picks, determinations and behaviors affect natural resources, s ocietal equity and economic development. Further, extension plans must move as theoretical accounts for others to follow and assist communities ‘walk the talk ‘ ( Crosby et al. , 2008 ) . This chapter is an effort to stress the most important facets of instruction associated with traveling toward sustainability.What is sustainability?Sustainability has different significances for different people and has merely late come into crisp focal point following concerns on ‘climate alteration ‘ and the effects for sustainability of humanity. Unfortunately, the clime alteration argument has overshadowed the more of import argument on the sustainability of the environment. Over the last two centuries, the environment has been seen as self-sufficient and a resource to be exploited and consumed. Merely in recent decennaries has the environment been acknowledged as being earnestly stressed and threatened, and in pressing demand for preservation and regeneration. Despite the present widespread acknowledgment of planetary environmental debasement being caused by human disregard, there is intense argument on how environmental preservation and regeneration can be achieved both now and in the hereafter. This argument is frustrated by a deficiency of a matter-of-fact definition of ‘sustainability ‘ , peculiarly in relation to sustainable environmental development. The much quoted Brundtlund Report definition published in 1987 was the first to associate ‘sustainable development ‘ to ‘social duty ‘ : ‘sustainable development means keeping the demands of the present coevals without compromising the ability of future coevalss to run into their demands ‘ . However, the ‘needs of the present coevals ‘ are many and diverse and include nutrient, H2O, energy and money among others. These demands have already exceeded the resources on which they depend and so the ability of future coevalss to run into their demands is already compromised. Following such a loose definition of sustainability, there has been go oning dismay on the disparity of the demands of the rich compared to those of the hapless and on ‘what ‘ should be sustained and precedences of prolonging. The world is that present population growing, alien life styles and inordinate ingestion of resources are non sustainable but to make sustainability remains an elusive aim. It is obvious that there is an pressing demand to travel towards sustainability based on major alterations to the present dominant societal and community values. The utmost dedication of communities to devour resources must alter to preservation of resources coupled with wealth accretion altering to wealth distribution to help in shuting the spread between the ‘haves ‘ and ‘have-nots ‘ . Hence, sustainability should be driven by ‘people power ‘ . Sustainability besides implies alterations of attitude and accent on perceptual experiences of the significance of ‘economic growing ‘ . This has long been associated with increased trade and industrial development which have produced a downward spiral of increased poorness and progressive environmental debasement. Economic growing has to be measured in footings of run intoing the indispensable demands of humanity without heightening environmental debasement together with greater equity in the distribution of economic benefits. Social justness is a important constituent of sustainability. Sustainability is chiefly dependent on the saving of the diverse and complex ecosystems which make up the planetary ecosphere. These delicate systems are under unprecedented emphasis as a effect of the relentless demands for cleared land for lodging and industry, the increasing demands for fossil fuels for energy coevals and the burgeoning demand for nutrient from grain harvests and for fish from the oceans. It is merely because of the comparatively recent dismay bells sounded by the onslaught of clime alteration that irreversible environmental debasement has been to the full recognized and appreciated but alas, non to the full understood. In order to stress the graduated table of debasement and its correlativity with human impact, a new slang has emerged that of ‘ecological footmark ‘ which is a step of the ecological capacity of persons. At present, even the crudest estimations of ecological footmarks indicate that the developed states of the universe are populating bey ond their ecological capacity and are therefore populating on borrowed clip. Sustainability necessarily involves ‘government ‘ at all degrees and requires democratic revival to bring forth sustainable, accountable and just signifiers of capitalist economy which activate societal reforms and advance ecological consciousness. There is a common perceptual experience that engineering will work out the sustainability issue but this is a misconception since although engineering can help traveling towards sustainability, it is non the one-sided counterpoison. Further, accomplishing sustainability is non a ‘quick hole ‘ phenomenon but a drawn-out and unsure journey affecting dedicated committedness of people and resources. It is already clear that the rate of technological development in extenuating clime alteration is non consistent with the magnitude of job. Put merely, to cut down ‘carbon emanations ‘ agencies ‘capturing C dioxide and deviating it from the ambiance ‘ . These two operations need to be both technologically and economically executable and require clip devouring research coupled with advanced schemes to commercialize new scientific finds. Although a touchable definition of sustainability is elusive, it does hold many aspects all related to prolonging the environment as the top precedence. Therefore, instruction for traveling toward sustainability besides has many aspects which are best illustrated by the bunch chart shown in Figure 1 and a brief treatment of each constituent of this bunch follows. Fig. 1 Cluster diagram to depict the constituents of instruction associated with sustainability.Education for sustainable environmentsProlonging humanity in the twenty-first century depends on prolonging the environment as the top precedence so as to continue its resources. In simple footings, continuing these resources means that sustainable consumable outputs are provided but that the ingestion rate does non transcend the regeneration rate. Similarly, non-renewable resources must be preserved which means that the ingestion rate is balanced by the production rate of renewable resources. In concurrence with these equilibrating schemes, it is necessary to guarantee that waste coevals does non transcend the assimilation rate of the environment. Clearly the present crisis of ague and widespread environmental debasement is the consequence of these three factors being ignored over many decennaries. The environment in all its dimensions is degrading globally. Atmospheric pollution has been of major concern for many decennaries but has now reached new highs of concern following the widespread concern on the effects of clime alteration. The chief cause of clime alteration is believed to be due to the inordinate physique up of C dioxide in the lower ambiance caused chiefly by the inordinate burning of fossil fuels for the production of energy. However, C dioxide is non the lone known nursery gas, methane is besides a potent heat storage gas along with H2O vapour. This fact entirely is sufficient for much complacence within the clime alteration argument and poses extra challenges for clime alteration pedagogues. Whether or non climate alteration is a world is irrelevant in the context of environmental sustainability since all factors which disturb the equilibrium of the environment which has been established over millenaries have to be considered and addressed. Loss of biodiversity from the land arises mostly from habitat loss and atomization produced by overexploitation of land for development, forestry and agribusiness. This is blazing transition of natural capital to investing capital and although there has been widespread disapprobation of devastation of the rain-forests of the universe for decennaries, the worlds of such desolation are merely now going to the full evident as are the effects of ‘intensive agribusiness ‘ which reduces dirt quality at dismaying rates. It is dry that forests conserve biodiversity, preserve H2O and dirt quality, supply a broad assortment of merchandises and, above all, produce atmospheric O by photosynthesis and yet these commissariats still have no touchable market value as compared with the economic benefits of logging and land glade which straight increase atmospheric C dioxide concentrations. Such are the challenges for sustainability instruction, since the mentalities of developers and econ omic experts clearly have to alter and natural resources need to be ‘priced ‘ sufficiently high to guarantee their saving. Similarly, H2O resources globally are at crisis point. Freshwater is indispensable for human life but at best, it is less than 5 % of the planetary resource. Excessive usage of fresh water supplies for irrigation has markedly affected the wellness of river systems chiefly by cut downing flow rates which in bend topographic points emphasis on wetland systems. Further, natural implosion therapy of river inundation fields has been curtailed by the building of dikes and weirs which further control river flow rates and therefore topographic point terrible emphasis on critical river ecosystem resources. It is once more dry that many of these aquatic ecosystems have been studied in item over several decennaries but it is merely relatively late that inter-dependence of these ecosystems has been appreciated and value of biodiversity as a realistic step of environmental wellness realized. Further, the Marine environment is besides undergoing rapid debasement which is most evident from the dimi nution in the figure of fish species as a consequence of over-fishing with the coming of spiller engineering and unsustainable fishing patterns. Although the recent addition in success of aquaculture has and will go on to turn to this instability, it is clear that more terrible international statutory controls on fishing are required together with the execution of sustainable fishing practices- both of which depend on international understandings and pacts which are hard to accomplish and implement.Education for sustainable economic systemsThe supreme challenge for sustainable life in the twenty-first century is to control inordinate ingestion in the developed universe whilst raising living criterions in the underdeveloped universe without a net addition in ingestion of natural resources and environmental impact. Historically, life criterions have correlated with economic growing and environmental debasement, and so moving towards sustainable life is at best challenging and at worst , impossible. Again, instruction is required to alter the mentality on what constitutes a ‘sustainable economic system ‘ , foremost by understanding why present national economic systems are non sustainable. Contemporary economic sciences is based on economic growing and efficient allotment of resources, and multiple schemes are put in topographic point to accomplish pre-determined economic aims upon which the wealth of states is based. Conversely, the alleged ‘new economic sciences ‘ or ‘ecological economic sciences ‘ is based on sustainable growing and carnival and efficient distribution of resources. The first clip that the latter became a world instead than a theory was at the 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change acme when developing universe states argued really convincingly that the developed universe should financially help the underdeveloped universe in cut downing planetary green house gas emanations. The failure of the acme to make a one-sided understanding on nursery gas emanations was mostly due to a deficiency of understanding on the basic rule of wealth distribution which underwrites ecological economic sciences. Conventional economic sciences puts a monetary value on natural resources such as fossil fuels, minerals, H2O and groceries and these are regarded as the chief drivers of national economic systems. However, every bit of import natural resources such as national Parkss, Marine Parkss, wetlands, coral reefs, mangrove swamps and many others are regarded as ‘economic outwardnesss ‘ which ‘need non be priced ‘ and hence are mature for development, peculiarly through touristry. Ecological economic sciences is based on realistic pricing of all natural resources which are capable to ingestion by worlds, either straight or indirectly and in add-on, is committed to the belief that sustainable economic sciences is based on a one-sided rejuvenation of industry such that fabrication procedures are energy and waste efficient, consume less resources and supply clean, safe working environments. Ecological economic sciences is the cardinal platform of the emerging C economic s ystem. However, it is already apparent that there is much resistance to a ‘carbon revenue enhancement ‘ and incredulity of the effectivity of ‘carbon emanation trading strategies ‘ in cut downing nursery gas emanations, so public instruction on the basic scientific discipline and economic sciences underpinning these strategies is evidently desperately required.Education for sustainable communitiesThere is no uncertainty that the overpowering menace to sustainability of humanity in the twenty-first century is that the present planetary population of about 6.8 billion is devouring 40 % more resources that the Earth is bring forthing per annum and so with a projected planetary population of 9 billion by 2050, 5.4 Earth ‘s worth of resources will be required to accomplish human sustainability. Even to travel towards sustainability on such a graduated table evidently requires a monolithic mind alteration of humanity and utmost urgency in the execution of sus tainable life patterns. Constructing sustainable communities basically involves ‘people power ‘ but communities require educating in order to develop the cognition, values and accomplishments required for informed decision-making that will better quality of life now without damaging the environment in the hereafter. Achieving sustainable life is a journey of indefinite continuance but with a clearly defined finish. It is a journey taken both by persons and by communities at the same time to the benefit of all. The foundation of sustainable communities is the development of sustainability literacy within communities which involves an apprehension of the present instability between ingestion and regeneration of indispensable natural resources – energy, H2O and nutrient. It is slightly dry and humbling to witness that the autochthonal communities of the universe have been far more sustainability literate over the last two centuries than the alleged modern communities over the last two decenn aries. Sustainable communities are resilient communities which have changed life-style behaviour and wonts which depend on inordinate consumerism to those which embrace waste decrease, reuse and recycle schemes all of which harmonize life criterions with environmental demands. These alterations take clip to implement but ensue in community societal wellbeing, strong economic systems and booming environments, the benefits of which become obvious to all. Sustainable communities vary tremendously with regard to size and character but traditionally form two groups – urban and rural. In the yesteryear, it has been much more hard to prolong rural communities due mostly to the one-way migration from state to town/city to obtain employment. However, this tendency can be at least partly reversed with the wider execution of ‘eco-development ‘ which has been responsible for the alleged ‘new urbanism ‘ doctrine but is merely merely going evident in rural and regional Centre substructure planning. Eco-development is based on a clean, green life doctrine which incorporates ingestion of renewable energies, preservation of H2O and life off the land utilizing smart ways to turn nutrient. Sustainable literacy merely becomes effectual when communities understand and appreciate that sustainable life non merely gives rise to better, healthier life styles but besides is cost effectual both in the short and long footings. B y virtuousness of their sustainable life styles, sustainable communities are resilient to the effects of clime alteration and are good suited to profit from future carbon-based economic systems.Education for sustainable energy suppliesProlonging humanity in the twenty-first century requires prolonging energy resources and supplies which creates the quandary which has become known as the planetary energy crisis. Coal, oil and natural gas combined provide about 80 % of planetary energy demands chiefly in the signifier of electricity and conveyance fuels but at the same clip bring forth the majority of nursery gas emanations which are believed to be responsible for planetary heating. It is estimated that planetary energy demand could leap by 50 % by 2030, consistent with a planetary population addition of 1.5 billion over the following two decennaries and this translates to a planetary heating estimation of the order of 6oC if fossil fuels continue to be the primary energy resource. An addition of 6oC corresponds to about 3 times the planetary heating which has occurred over the last century and would hold ruinous environmental, economic and societal effects. It is this type of horror scenario which is driving the alleged ‘global energy revolution ‘ which dictates that there has to be a move off from fossil fuels as the primary energy resource towards the usage of clean green renewable energy resources. These are having increasing attending but all have important technological, development, economic and ethical jobs associated with them. The quandary is that at present, all known renewable energy resources combined including atomic, solar, air current and biofuels account for less than 10 % of planetary energy demands and although considerable technological progresss are happening with regard to the commercial development of renewable energy resources, this state of affairs is improbable to alter significantly within the following decennary. Similarl y, attempts to cut down nursery gas emanations from bing coal-burning power Stationss, jointly known as ‘clean coal engineering ‘ , are at least 10 -15 old ages off from commercial world. It is cautiously estimated that fossil fuels will stay as the primary planetary energy resource for at least the following 30 – 50 old ages and that phasing out of bing coal-burning power Stationss will take at least 10 – 15 old ages. Therefore, the energy crisis is basically how are sustainable energy supplies to be provided entirely from renewable energy resources over the following half century? Although, it is by and large agreed that the passage to renewable energy resources is inevitable, the clip graduated table for such a passage is really ill-defined since there are non merely major technological jobs to be overcome but besides major societal and economic issues to be addressed along the manner which involve important educational schemes to be one-sidedly implemented. Given that it is already copiously clear that we live by an ‘energy economic system ‘ it is improbable that the excess costs associated with suspension of nursery gas emanations from fossil fuel burning coupled with the costs of developing options to fossil fuels will be readily accepted by communities, given that the present escalating costs of electricity and conveyance fuels are a beginning of desperation globally. Then there are ethical issues to be resolved in the passage to clean energy resources. It has been extensively argued that atomic power is the lone realistic option to coal and oil as a primary energy resource but the general population is really concerned about the grade of fail-safe operation of atomic power Stationss and is really concerned about safe disposal of atomic waste. Similarly, biofuels which rely on nutrient harvests such as maize merchandises as the primary energy resource are viing with the despairing demand to increase grain production globally to turn to malnutrition in some 23 % of the planetary population. It is clear that the planetary energy revolution will merely win if feasible instruction schemes are introduced and available to the general population which address the widespread deficiency of apprehension of clime alteration and, in peculiar, its causes and besides address the pros and cons of renewable energy resources. The immediate hereafter has to affect a blend of old and new energy coevals engineerings coupled with a widespread acknowledgment that energy has to be conserved and non wasted. It is practical instruction plans which will advance this ethic at all degrees within communities.Education for sustainable H2O suppliesSustainable life besides means holding entree to sustainable H2O supplies. At present, it is estimated that some 15 % of the planetary population do non hold entree to safe H2O and the bulk of these are in developing states. It is well-known that many of the life threatening diseases, so common in the underdeveloped universe, are spread by imbibing contami nated H2O. Further, it is estimated that agricultural irrigation consumes some 65 % of planetary fresh water supplies and already many states and parts are sing H2O scarceness at dismaying degrees due to drawn-out periods of drouth. Droughts are predicted to go more drawn-out as a consequence of the effects of clime alteration and so demand for fresh water will necessarily lift – predicted to be by some 30 % over the following two decennaries and therefore it is clear that pressing schemes are necessary to educate communities to utilize less H2O more expeditiously. Unfortunately, addition in fresh water usage is driven by legion factors which are hard to measure and command. These factors include population addition and distribution, life styles, economic systems and, most peculiarly, by increasing demands for nutrient which drives additions in irrigated agribusiness. There is besides a political factor which influences freshwater use in that many of the universe ‘s major fresh water resources are shared since major rivers frequently flow through several states. For illustration, the Danube passes through 12 states that use its H2O and the Nile flows through 9 states which are wholly dependent on its Waterss. Agreement between states that portion freshwater resources can be hard to accomplish and prolong but are by and large associated with demands for more effectual H2O use and rigorous direction plans. Since fresh water is such a valuable resource, H2O pricing is a extremely combative issue at all degrees – domestic, industrial and agricultural. Agribusiness is linked straight to nutrient production and hence husbandmans believe that they have the right to sufficient H2O to bring forth sufficient harvests to supply a sustainable income for themselves and their households. Some authoritiess nevertheless believe that such H2O rights should be controlled by licence in position of the scarceness of the trade good and this explains the struggle that is apparent between primary manufacturers and H2O licensing governments. It is inevitable that sustainable agribusiness depends on a major decrease in H2O used for irrigation by progressive usage of drip-irrigation engineering in concurrence with installing of improved drainage and recycling systems. Besides, during the alleged ‘Green Revolution ‘ of the sixtiess, new strains of many species of harvests resulted in big add itions in productiveness and this engineering is now focused on strains of grain harvests which require less irrigation. At the industrial degree and as a major portion of ‘industrial greening ‘ schemes, industry is following H2O recycling enterprises which may include partial intervention of waste H2O. These enterprises are complementary to the energy ingestion decrease schemes and are consistent with the ‘3R ‘s ‘ of clean, green industry – reuse, recycle, cut down. At the domestic degree, a ‘user wages ‘ system is normally applied to H2O ingestion and during periods of drouth, limitations are placed on H2O use which are enforced by H2O direction governments. It is going progressively evident that due to the intensifying cost of H2O, communities and persons are going more cognizant of the demand for H2O preservation and are taking appropriate stairss to originate the ‘3R ‘ regulation both separately and jointly. These enterprises include the installing of H2O armored combat vehicles in places to roll up rain H2O and the recycling of non-sewage waste H2O for external usage. No longer can it be taken for granted that the right to H2O agencies merely turning a pat on.Education for sustainable nutrient suppliesFood security, in concurrence with sustainable energy and H2O supplies, are the indispensable constituents of prolonging humanity. At present, nutrient security is non a world since at least 15 % of the planetary population is ill-fed and with a projected billowing population addition, it is a dashing challenge to cut down universe hungriness, particularly since this is straight linked with poorness and exacerbated by planetary heating. The Green Revolution, which partly achieved nutrient security over the period 1960 to mid-1980, was the morning of ‘intensive agribusiness ‘ which has resulted in serious environmental jobs. Widespread deep tilling of land together with inordinate usage of fertilisers and pesticides coupled with intensive irrigation has caused debasement of dirt quality and texture in add-on to dry land salt. The extra menace of clime alteration will necessarily further endanger the accomplishment of nutrient security in coming decennaries unless pressing stairss are taken now to travel towards sustainable agribusiness. Science, engineering and invention are indispensable drivers of sustainable agribusiness and therefore nutrient security. Improved mechanisation of agribusiness utilizing efficient reaping machines which cut down dirt compression are already increasing productiveness and usage of geographical placement system ( GPS ) engineering to supervise and command the place of such machinery enables exactly measured sums of seed, fertiliser and pesticides in add-on to the finding of dirt and works quality, which enables early sensing of diseases. Further, development of improved harvest assortments and marker assisted works genteelness combine to cut down losingss due to plagues and diseases. These biotechnologies lead to strains which are tolerant of drouth, heat and saline conditions in add-on to improved plague and disease opposition. Further, trickle irrigation coupled with micro-nutrient add-on is going progressively effectual in increasing production of staple harvests such as sweet murph y. In the quest to happen alternate, clean, green energy resources, bio-fuels have come into prominence. Biofuels are presently produced from amylum, sugar cane, wheat, corn and palm oil. Biofuel production is presently slightly controversial since the needed natural stuff is derived from land that should be used for nutrient production. In add-on, sugar cane and palm oil plantations contribute to deforestation of tropical rain woods. ‘Second coevals ‘ biofuels are presently being investigated which use harvest residues, grasses and willows as base stuffs and these have much promise as future commercial biofuels and are free of the nutrient related contentions. The last decennary has seen monolithic development of marine resources in the quest to accomplish nutrient security. The application of modern engineering to commercialisation of angling operations has led to a planetary overfishing crisis such that sustainable piscaries thresholds have been exceeded. Many of the coastal commercial piscaries have collapsed as a consequence of worsening gimmicks and the planetary industry is confronting farther menaces from saltwater warming and increasing acidification caused by clime alteration. Therefore, the seafood industry is non sustainable. The solution involves reaping methods that gaining control fish selectively and within specified bounds so as to let regeneration. However, such schemes are hard to implement on an international graduated table. Aquaculture is going progressively of import in turn toing the challenge of nutrient security. Entire fish gaining control in 2010 amounted to some 145 million metric tons of which aquaculture contributed 54 million metric tons – stand foring an addition of some 20 million metric tons compared to a decennary ago. Aquaculture meets at least three aims: provides seafood and hence income for coastal communities, reduces angling force per unit area on wild populations and maintains fish supply to prolong commercial, subsistence and recreational demands. Aquaculture can be sustainable provided that quality saltwater, reliable supplies of seed and feed-stocks are available together with application of schemes to guarantee disease free hatcheries and grow-out systems. The following coevals of aquaculture may affect debut of genetically modified beings ( GMOs ) . GMO ‘s have already been introduced into agribusiness and genetically modified harvest strains have been shown to giv e higher outputs with lower fertiliser support. The transgenic animate being merchandises are controversial and early efforts to market GMO salmon have faced stiff opposition. However, the potency for GMOs to be a force in battling nutrient deficits is important and can non be overlooked. Food security is clearly based on a combination of sustainable agribusiness, sustainable piscaries and sustainable aquaculture together with a paradigm displacement in the extent to which natural nutrient resources are exploited. Basically, more nutrient has to be produced with less energy, less H2O, less chemicals and by methods which allow environmental regeneration.Education in sustainability scientific discipline and engineeringSustainability scientific discipline is the scientific discipline associated with sustainable natural resource direction upon which the sustainability of humanity depends. The chemical scientific disciplines have a polar function in sustainability scientific discipline since atmospheric, fresh water and marine chemical science and dirt chemical science are of major importance in understanding pollution, and sourness and salt in the environment and overall wellness of the environment. In fact, ‘green chemical science ‘ is a driving force of envi ronmental sustainability. With its linkages to the biological scientific disciplines, economic sciences, environmental jurisprudence and political relations, green chemical science is a new manner to develop and use chemical procedures and processs that produce ‘chemicals ‘ which are benign to the environment and economically competitory. Aquatic chemical science plays a polar function in the finding of H2O quality of rivers, lakes and seas – a cardinal factor in the sustainability of aquatic nutrient production. It besides explains why rives and seas are increasing in sourness and the eventful effects on aquatic life, peculiarly fish. Soil chemical science is of huge significance in understanding how soil quality can be improved within an intensive agribusiness government and in understanding the causes and redresss for dry-land salt. Another constituent of sustainability scientific discipline is the ‘so-called ‘ clime scientific discipline, which is focused on an apprehension of the planetary clime and besides on the causes and effects of planetary heating. There is widespread belief that ‘technology ‘ can work out the major universe jobs such as hungriness, energy and fresh water lacks and, more late – clime alteration. This is merely partly true since it takes clip and invention to commercialize appropriate engineering to turn to specific jobs and technological innovation is an germinating procedure. It has already been shown that biotechnology is playing a critical function in the suspension of hungriness and many engineerings are being trialed and tested in the pursuit for clean energy resources. However, in footings of prolonging the environment and hence humanity in the twenty-first century, many types of engineerings are required which address basically the debasement of the environment caused by human intercession. For illustration, C gaining control and storage engineering, which is being developed to cut down nursery gas emanations from coal-burning power Stationss, may be successful but the economic costs o f gaining control, concentration, transit and storage of these gases has to be considered in the context of keeping costs of power coevals near to or at present degrees so that consumers are non faced with intensifying power measures. Further, the effects of long-run storage of nursery gases in deep Wellss are non known. It seems logical to recycle the captured nursery gases to bring forth utile chemicals instead than bury them. Similarly, GMO ‘s are of great significance in hiking agricultural end products without the inordinate usage of fertilisers and pesticides. However, there is much community resistance to their usage in footings of the effects thereof on human wellness and this is peculiarly the instance with genetically modified animate beings. It is clear than that sustainable scientific discipline and engineering are doing major parts to prolonging humanity and will make so in the hereafter but are non replacements for cardinal parts made by persons and communities to prolonging the environment.Education on clime alterationClimate alteration is likely one of the most contested modern-day issues. The pro-lobbyists argue that the scientific facts back uping clime alteration are incontrovertible and that back uping grounds is abundant. The opposing groups and sceptics argue that clime alteration is non a new phenomenon and that the scientific grounds is inconclusive and equivocal. It is clear that an apprehension of clime alteration requires some cognition of several scientific disciplines and understanding how to extenuate it needs to acknowledge the societal, political and economic facets. The latter have come into prominence late with the failure of the latest universe acme on clime alteration held in Copenhagen in 2009, neglecting to come up with an in agreement scheme to cut down nursery gas emanations really significantly within the following decennary. The failure to make understanding was in portion due to the developed states being unwilling to subsidise developing states in attempts to extenuate clime alteration and the ‘big three ‘ – USA, China and India one time once more non holding to subscribe any understanding to take the universe in doing the biggest cuts to greenhouse gas emanations within the following decennary. There is besides a widespread perceptual experience that engineering will repair the job of clime alteration but this is a psychotic belief. It is true that engineering is already being applied to turn to the most powerful job of nursery gas emanation – those associated with the production of electricity by the burning of natural coal. Clean coal engineering is already a major industry non merely with regard to carbon dioxide gaining control and storage ( CCS ) but besides with regard to development of clean, green, renewable energy resources. With regard to CCS, there are major jobs with the scheme of gaining control, concentration and ultimate dumping and it is by no agencies certain that this engineering will salvage coal-burning power Stationss from forced death. By contrast, immense developments are being made with regard to solar energy coevals, peculiarly with regard to the production of cheap solar cells and electricity storage capacity of batteries. Wind energy coeval s is besides going commercially feasible but has considerable public resistance since the monolithic generators are visually unattractive and are often located on premier cultivable land. It has already been discussed that engineering is being applied to stabilise H2O supplies even though these are farther threatened by the effects of clime alteration. Technology is besides developing more efficient irrigation systems and biotechnology is developing strains of nutrient harvests that require less H2O and can thrive in saline dirt conditions. However, it is clear that engineering entirely can non be relied upon to extenuate the effects of clime alteration. It has already been shown that prolonging humanity in the twenty-first century is wholly dependent on prolonging the environment which can merely be achieved by ‘people power ‘ both at the community and single degrees. Climate alteration is traveling to do this challenge even more ambitious and therefore the demand to conserve energy, H2O and nutrient, upon which humanity so clearly depends, is even more pressing. Equally pressing is the demand for wide-ranging instruction plans which guide communities and persons to follow eco-friendly life styles to prolong the environment. In decision, this overview has shown that prolonging humanity in both the short and long footings can merely be achieved by prolonging the environment which in bend agencies prolonging the primary resources, energy, H2O and nutrient, on which human life depends. Prolonging the environment is a supreme challenge since a battalion of complex synergistic secret agents are involved which demand single and community attending. Climate alteration introduces an extra dimension to this challenge and besides increases the urgency to traveling towards environmental sustainability. Complacency is non an option, nor is trust on engineering to work out this crisis. It is lone persons and communities working together in concurrence with engineering that moves toward environmental sustainability will be evident. Unfortunately, the journey towards environmental sustainability is of unsure continuance and can non make its finish within one coevals.

Micro and Macro Economics (marginal revenue; marginal cost; Essay

Micro and Macro Economics (marginal revenue; marginal cost; elasticity) - Essay Example Define marginal revenue and explain its relationship with total revenue. â€Å"Marginal revenue (MR) is the rate of change in total revenue with respect to quantity sold†. In other words marginal revenue is the additional revenue from a product earned by a producer through the production and sales of an extra unit of the product. Algebraically, marginal revenue is the difference between total revenue earned by producing and selling ‘n’ units of a product instead of ‘n-1’ units. Formula for calculating marginal revenue is MR = ∆TR/∆Q Marginal revenue is the addition to total revenue associated with a unit increase in output or sales. There is a direct relation between marginal revenue and total revenue. When marginal revenue is positive, total revenue increases and it falls when marginal revenue is negative. B. Define marginal cost and explain its relationship with total cost. â€Å"Marginal cost is the change in total cost associated with a unit change in quantity†. Marginal cost is thus the additional cost incurred by the producer in producing an additional unit of product. Marginal cost is thus a cost incured in addition to previous cost ie. cost of producing ‘n’ units of output inplace of ‘n-1’ units. Formula for calculating marginal cost is MC = ∆TC/∆Q Marginal cost is related to the average total cost in the short-run since a change in total cost is reflected in the total average cost. The total variable cost is got by summing up marginal cost. C. Define profit and explain the concept of profit maximization. â€Å"An economist measures a firm’s economic profit as the firm’s total revenue minus all the opportunity costs (explicit and implicit) of producing the goods and services sold† (Mankiw, 2011, p. 262). Profit is the reward received by an entrepreneur for the risk taken during the process of production or for alloting scarce resources for production. Profit maximization is a method used for determinig the quantity of output to be produced and price to be incurred by an entrepreneur so as to receive maximum profit. D. Explain how a profit-maximizing firm determines its optimal level of output, using marginal revenue and marginal cost as criteria. A profit-maximizing firm will determine its optimal level o f output at the point where marginal revenue of the firm equals its marginal cost. At this point the firm receives maximum profit. E. Explain what action a profit-maximizing firm takes if marginal revenue is greater than marginal cost. If marginal revenue is greater than marginal cost, then a profit maximizing firm will increase production which will be followed by a movement from earlier point of marginal revenue to a new intersection point where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. This step is adopted by the firm as there is room for further revenue at the earlier stage. F. Explain what action a profit-maximizing firm takes if marginal revenue is less than marginal cost. In a situation where marginal cost of a profit-maximizing firm exceeds its marginal revenue, the firm will cut short its production up to a level where it will equalize its marginal cost to marginal revenue. At the earlier level the firm was incurring loss. Task 2: A. Define the following three terms 1. Elastic ity of Demand: Elasticity of demand has various definitions. â€Å"The price elasticity of demand is a measure of the sensitivity of the quantity demanded of a good to the price of a good. ‘Price elasticity of demand’ is sometimes shortened to ‘elasticity of demand’† (Taylor & Weerapana, 2009, p. 93). 2. Cross-Price Elasticity (includes substitutes and complements): Cross-price elasticity is the degree of responsiveness to change in the price of a related commodity on the demand for a good. â€Å"

Nure health-related website Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Nure health-related website - Essay Example It is quite easy to locate the website using Google as the search engine. By just typing ‘health.gov’ on the browser, the website is the first to be generated. The website domain is ‘gov,’ which can be interpreted to mean that the website belongs to a government-affiliated agency. Actually, it belongs to the US Department of Health and Human Services. Further, the website is under the coordination of the Office of Disease Prevention and health Promotion, the Office of the Secretary and the Office of the assistant Secretary of Health in the US Department of Health and Human services. This website in every respect deals with matters relating to health. The universal resource locator (URL) for the website is http://www.health.gov/. www.health.gov is an outstanding website that commands a lot of authority hence its credibility. Being owned by the Department of Health and Human Services, it is expected that it will abhor the most credible information that is obtained from reliable sources. The government conducts health surveys as well as credible independent surveys, which form the basis of some of the information that is posted in this website. In addition, any health related communication from the government and stakeholders in the health sector are provided through this site. In this regard, the site has diverse health news and resources from different credible sources. The focus on the site is on matters related to human health. This demonstrates that the site is quite specific and objective. Navigating through the site is quite easy because there are different categories that one can click, hence providing an easy access to various form of health information. The site does not collect any personal informat ion unless the user opts to do so though the information is protected. However, non-personal information is collected and saved. The site prohibits sharing, disclosing or selling of its information unless provided by the Federal

Construction of Poverty Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Construction of Poverty - Essay Example It is irrefutable that countries have not been totally successful in the alleviation of poverty. During 2001, The World Bank reports that one-third of the world population or less than three billion people live on less than $2 a day. What is also notable is a huge income inequality in the world as the three richest people in the world are seen to have more wealth than all 600 million people thriving in the world's poorest nations. It is also reported that 50, 000 people die each day due to poverty related causes (Millennium Campaign n.d.). These, together with a lot of empirical evidences show how the world thrives in poverty. There are a lot of factors which are directly linked with poverty. In fact, there is a continuous debate on the underlying causes of poverty making it a politicized issue. Some critics argue that poverty ensues from personal choices or preferences while the other end associates poverty with factors beyond a person's choice. The last view poverty as "the result of many systemic factors" like the lack of opportunity which, is traced to the lack of education which, in turn, is due to the lack of government intervention and provision (Poverty 2006). This report will look at the causes of poverty, specifically how poverty is constructed or heightened by factors beyond personal choices and preferences. This paper will focus on how different organizations, both public and private contribute to poverty. Institutions to be looked at are the International Monetary Fund, World Bank, World Trade Organizations, and multinational corporations. This report will conclude with its findings. World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) Both the World Bank and IMF are agencies which aspire to alleviate global poverty. The mission of World Bank (2006) reads "Our mission is to help developing countries and their people reach the goals by working with our partners to alleviate poverty. To do that we concentrate on building the climate for investment, jobs and sustainable growth, so that economies will grow, and by investing in and empowering poor people to participate in development." On the other hand, IMF (2006) claims that it "provides low-income countries with policy advice, technical assistance, and financial support" and that "low-income countries receive more than half of the technical assistance provided by the Fund, and financial support is extended at low interest rates and over relatively long time horizons." However, critics argue that these two institutions through their various policies cause poverty in many developing nations. These organizations have also been criticized as they promote poor countries' dependency on richer nations. This section will briefly examine the policies of these agencies which are seen to heighten, instead of alleviate, poverty. The IMF and World Bank's primary program in reducing poverty is the extension of financial assistance to impoverished nations. However, this financial aid is coupled with "neoliberal"2 ideology or agenda which is a prerequisite for the fund. Examples of these conditions are "cutbacks" or "liberalization" of the economy, opening markets for trade, minimization of government intervention, privatization which causes the reduced protection of domestic industries, currency devaluation, mounts in interest rates, "flexibility" of the labor market, elimination

Steve Jobs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Steve Jobs - Essay Example He was named as Steven Paul Jobs. In the year 1960, the Jobs family moved to Santa Clara which is popularly known as Silicon Valley. By the age of thirteen, he managed to get a summer job at HP. He was extremely good at computers and his instructors in schools wanted to skip him several classes ahead, which his parents declined. His interest in computers developed at an early age and he was inspired by the machinist work performed by his father. b) Professional career sketch of Steve Jobs Jobs dropped out of college in the very first semester and went to India in quest of spirituality. At the young age of 21, Steve cofounded Apple Computers with Steve Wozniac and Ron Wayne. Jobs was responsible for marketing Apple Computers and Wozniac headed the technical department of Apple and they started selling affordable computer solutions to Americans. The Apple Computers were smaller in size and could be purchased by the middle class American people. The organization further developed Apple II which became more popular and this resulted in augmented sales by around seventy percent. By the year, 1980, Apple Computers became a publicly traded firm and registered a market value of USD 1.2 billion on the initial day of trading (BusinessNewsDaily, 2013). Individual 2 Moving out of Apple The next few years witnessed a downfall in Apple due to serious flaws in designs and disappointment by consumers. Along with this, Apple faced stiff competition from IBM which had registered augmented growth in sales as compared with Apple. The Macintosh was released by Apple in the year 1984 and it was effectively marketed as a machine which was youthful, romantic and creative. Despite registering favourable growth in sales with Macintosh, Apple was still not able to effectively compete with IBM. This was because the computers designed by IBM were far more superior as compared with Macintosh. Following this, the then President of Apple, Scully believed that Steve Jobs was not able to steer the organization to a path of growth and subsequently Jobs had to resign from Apple in the year 1985. He commenced a new hardware and software firm known as NeXT, Inc. The very next year, an animation firm was purchased by Jobs which later came to be known as Pixar Animation Studios. The animation film studio produced successful and popular animated movies like The Incredibles, Finding Nemo and Toy Story. In the year 2006, Pixar merged with Walt Disney Studios and Steve Jobs became one of the largest shareholders of Walt Disney. Back to Apple Pixar Animation Studio resulted as an extremely successful business venture. However, NeXT Inc., failed to achieve success and was eventually acquired by Apple in the year 1997. In the year 1997, Steve Jobs again became the CEO of Apple. The success of Apple in the 1990s is credited to the business acumen of Steve Jobs. He formed a new management team, imposed himself to a salary of $1 per annum and modified the stock options, thereby leading t he organization into a path of success (The Wall Street Journal, 2011). The consumers became awed by innovative design solutions like iMac, iPad, iPod and the like, stylish designs and excellent branding and marketing campaigns and sale of Apple products soared ahead. c)

Clausewitz, Jomini, WWII and Operation Overlord Essay

Clausewitz, Jomini, WWII and Operation Overlord - Essay Example The paper tells that Jomini served in the Russian and French armies in the 19th century during the Napoleonic wars. He contributed largely on the terms used in modern U.S theory and doctrine. Jomini believed that war was a science and with careful study on rules one could discover its conduct. According to Jomini he depicted strategy as art of war upon the map, which comprehended the entire theater of war. â€Å"The main tactic being posting troops in accordance with the accidents of the ground, of placing them into battle, and art of fighting upon the ground, in contradiction to planning upon a map†. Jomini further stated that a defensive war had its advantages when wisely conducted. He depicted passive defense as being pernicious and the active on the other side accomplishing greater success. Jomini’s principle on political war was that the cause of defensive war is to protect the countryside that was being threatened by the enemy, and all operations to be designed to retard his enemy’s progress. This is to be achieved by increasing difficulties and obstacles in the enemy’s way, however taking care not to compromise one’s own army. The idea behind it was that for one to invade, he does so with intention of superiority. The defense on the other hand desires delay till the adversary is weakened by fatigues, marches and sending off detachments to his progress. These ideas by Jomini are important as they are the only ones that were worth considering when it comes to modern war, especially the strategy of exhaustion used to eventually strangle the Confederacy. (Archer 130). Williams in his book Lincoln and his Generals found that most of Jomini’s ideas were seen as misleading and isolated, in many cases would lead to high casualties, uncertain battles, and a war that drug on for so long (Williams 204). Clausewitz ideas on war According to Clausewitz war was a tragic and complex enterprise, always threatening to break away from human control (Archer 126). Bartholomees in his article states that much of what Clausewitz purported was either ordinary or 19th century specific with an exception of three ideas (Bartholomeees 21). First his encouragement of seeking battle. In his book he states that â€Å"†¦ pursuit makes up the second act of the victory and in most cases is more important than the first† (Clausewitz 267). According to his view, he sees war as a nonlinear phenomenon that is naturally unpredictable through analytical means (Bayerchen 86). The second idea that Clausewitz gave was attacking the enemy’s centre of gravity. This was to be achieved by attacking the enemy’s army then followed by seizing his capital and attacking his alliances. The final idea is the â€Å"how to†, which is a concept of the culminating point. Clausewitz defines culminating point as strategic attacks that lead to the point where the remaining potency is just enough to sustain a cover an d wait for peace. Past that point then tables turn and the reaction follows with force that is usually a lot stronger compared to the original attack (Clausewitz 82). Difference between the two theorists There are a lot of differences between the two theorists and their ideas but with only one that can be considered over the others. Their difference mostly came in because: Clausewitz theories mainly dealt with how to win the war unlike Jomini’s which emphasized on teaching the leaders how to fight their battles. Conclusion Jomini’

The theme of Steinbeck's The Chrysanthemums Essay

The theme of Steinbeck's The Chrysanthemums - Essay Example Steinback explores the feminist approach in this short story. Summary of ‘The Chrysanthemums’ Steinback weaves a tale of a passionate woman, Elisa who lives in a male-dominated society. Elisa Allen lives with her husband in her ranch and is his helping hand. Elisa is shown as women more intelligent than her husband but being a woman, she cannot hope to become her husband’s equal. Elisa’s intelligence is matched with her passion towards the ranch, especially towards the Chrysanthemums that she plants. But even with all her intelligence and passion, she cannot guide her husband to improve upon the ranch. Her husband generally ignores her passions and treats her more like a sibling or a friend. Another man enters Elisa’s world, the tinker. The tinker is a person who has travelled much and matches Elisa’s intelligence. He woos her by complimenting on her Chrysanthemums and Elisa becomes attracted towards him. His attention towards Elisa, even thou gh is proved false in the end, makes Elisa aware of her own sexuality as she watches her naked reflection in the mirror after the tinker leaves (Steinback, 1995). However, Elisa is brought back to the realities of the male-dominated world when she finds that the tinker threw away the Chrysanthemums, she offered as a gift, after leaving the ranch. Theme of ‘The Chrysanthemums’ Gender Inequality is the main theme of the book and other themes are secondary to this theme and help support the actual theme. The book is set in the 1930s when males were given the ruling hand just because they were male. Females, on the other hand, were expected to be subservient and their use in the home was to help the husband. Steinback, uses this novel to point out the prevailing gender inequality at that time. Even though Elisa was more passionate about the ranch and had the aptitude to growing beautiful Chrysanthemums, she was not able to guide her husband towards any improvement in the ra nch. Even if she provided any suggestions, they were merely ignored by her husband. This was either because he did not expect her to come up with good suggestions or because he was not interested in making any changes. It is not just Elisa’s husband who gets to lead his life his own way but also the tinker who visits the ranch. The tinker lives an adventurous life, a life that Elisa envies because he gets to see the whole world and the beautiful flowers within while Elisa is only confined to the ranch. She cannot leave the ranch because females at that time were not allowed to leave her homes on such adventurous journeys without their husband. In the case of Elisa, her husband would not have been interested. Thus, Elisa is forced to live her life according to the wishes of her husband, while it is obvious there is so much more that she could with her life. Another theme in the short story is the sexual fulfillment of females. The society during that time was constructed on id eals that were not ideal for the females. Sexual fulfillment was only considered the right of the males while females were just necessary partners in the activity. It is clear that the relationship between Elisa and her husband is more fraternal instead of a husband wife relationship. The arrival of the tinker in the ranch awakens sexual feelings within Elisa and Steinback here makes a point that women are as likely to have sexual feelings as men; and that sexual feelings are so powerful that they make people behave in foolish ways. The passionate and robust nature of Elisa hints at a sexual person

Environmental Sustainability Master Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Environmental Sustainability Master - Essay Example There are 76 data sets integrated to fully assess the likelihood of a certain country to preserve effectively its environmental resources. These data sets include tracking natural resource endowments, past and present pollution levels, environmental management efforts, and its capacity to improve its environmental performance. The broad range of environmental issues being faced by each country falls into five categories: environmental systems, reducing environmental stresses, reducing human vulnerability to environmental stresses, societal and institutional capacity to respond to environmental challenges, and global stewardship. Despite of the continuous urbanization process in most countries, Ireland is maintaining its rural character. An evident decline in the rural population was observed in 1901 when the rural population fell from 72 to 43 percent. Surprisingly, the country experienced a boom in rural population growth in 1981 and 1996. This rural growth is characterized by isolated houses in the countryside or cluster of houses outside towns and villages. The expected reason for such phenomena is the obvious importance of agriculture to the livelihood of the people. However, this is not the case. The observed rural settlement growth took place at a time of stagnating agricultural economy and a turn down in agricultural employment. Studies were able to establish that there is a strong relationship between changes in rural settlement and the trends in car ownership. There was a 140 percent increase in car ownership in Ireland between 1970 and 1994. Presently, the country is experiencing 5 percent annual growth in car ownership. Due to this, people are more capable to choose residence in one place and be employed in another; they become the so called commuters. (McGrath) The growth of rural settlements and the increase in the working population whose residences are situated in a place far from work, give way to the issue of car dependency. The majority of the rural population being car dependent contributes to certain environmental problems whose scopes are wider and whose effects transcends beyond the communities of the involved people. The issue of motor car dependency, therefore, is being linked as the main reason to more serious environmental issues. The motor car is tagged as environmentally unsustainable and less efficient mode of everyday transport. A car consumes twice much energy as a train and five times greater than a bus. Aside from this, it is a main contributor to air pollution, a problem which is of great global concern nowadays. A motor car's carbon dioxide emission, measured as grams per passenger kilometer, is 50 percent higher than a train and four times higher when the bus is the mode of transportation. The bottom line, Ireland, its people being dependent on private cars for personal travels is relatively unsustainable on transport related environmental grounds because of the per capita levels of energy consumptions and vehicle emissions (McGrath). Such is the main findings of the Dublin study. Luckily, the current state of our Science and Technology is far advanced from what we can and what we have in the past. Right now, innovations and discoveries are becoming a usual part in this fast-pace world. Ireland's mod e of transportation has a lot of potential of being modified and improved so as to avoid the further risk of subjecting

History Museum Visit Essay Example for Free

History Museum Visit Essay Located on the coast of southern California is the city of La Jolla. Now home to almost 40,000 people, this city shares its own historical story from the past one hundred and fifty years through a series of presentations located within three historical structures. These three structures include, The Westeria Cottage, Carriage House and the Current Headquarters. Each structure contributes its portion in putting together the La Jolla’s Historical Society. Currently, the structures are featuring, Home front La Jolla : An American Community during World War 11. The series includes multiple rooms dedicated to different parts in history, along with the different aspects going on during the war. Each room featured many photographs, artifacts and personal stories to exploit the hardship of these times in our history. Many of these items were either donated or loaned by the Veterans Museum in Balboa Park and the Japanese American Historical Society of San Diego. While researching for museums, early in February I came across the main website for these historical sites. It caught my eye because I knew that this exhibit would cast a different kind of perspective than other grand museums. There are a ton of histories on World War II, but there are very few on the home front experience. The La Jolla Historical Society presents a perspective from its society, and shares multiple personal oral stories from its own residents who lived through the war or their surviving relatives, which I found fascinating. It is catered specifically to the effects of World War II on La Jollians. The oral stories provided by this exhibit are not only about what these residents remember about World War II, but also an intake of what life was like beyond that. I viewed this as a much different approach, but was very excited to begin my experience because I knew it would be something new. On April 7th, 2012, I took the opportunity to travel down to La Jolla and visit the museum. The museum is open Thursday-Sunday, Noon to four PM and does not have a fee at all. I was also fortunate to be able to attend on a day where there was a given lecture at five PM, giving me enough time to grab an early dinner before returning again. The lecture, Science Technology on the Home front, was covered by an oceanographer and U.S Army veteran Walter Munk. He discussed the scientific innovations sparked by the needs of the war effort precipitating a boom in the fields of marine sciences and aeronautics. Entering the museum, I was introduced into a grand room that was divided up by glass cylinders, and it also offered entrances to many other rooms. Initially where you begin the journey, the right wall played an introduction role. It began with the year of 1894, displaying numerous photographs creating an idea of how life was like in La Jolla at the time. â€Å"Everyone knew everyone† quoted by Maurice Bonny was stated at the top of the wall. Photographs included vacation sports such as the La Jolla Caves, as well as the role of the newly invented Trains and Trolleys played and daily lifestyle activities such as golfing and beachside activities. Continuing along, stood in front of me a large wall with a devastating photograph of the explosives on December 7th, 1941. Underneath was the original copy of the U.S Navy Communication Service from that given day, along with an article written the following day by John MaxConnel. This portion of the exhibit also feautured my first chosen artifact, a scrapbook. The oral history of a World War II veteran, Don Shutte, was done by a La Jolla High School student named Ana Ofresky, especially for this exhibit. Don Schutte donated a scrapbook of artifacts of things throughout his experience. It contained images, personal sketches and official documents, including the telegram the Department of War sent to his parents notifying them of his status as missing in action and a POW identification card he was given by the German Army upon his capture and imprisonment during the Battle of Bulge, on December 16, 1944. The final page of the scrapbook contains a letter he wrote to himself on Dec. 2, 1945, stating: â€Å"Hello there, great to be a civilian, isn’t it?† I found this a significant artifact because it told a story of just one man involved in the war in a very unique way. The documents inside this scrapbook were all original and of items I had never se en before. On the opposite side of the room was a large wall which featured certain camps that La Jolla was hosting at the time. These camps included Camp Callan, Camp Mathews and a military base in Bird Rock. Camp Calvin B. Mathews, also known as Marine Corps. Rifle Range was a military base from 1917 to 1964. It was used as a marksmanship training facility for Marine recruits being trained at Marine Corps Recruit. It was issued a rifle base but not until 1923. The base was then constructed to what is now UCSD. Camp Callen was a United States Army anti-aircraft artillery replacement training center that was operational during the time of war but was shut down right after World War II had ended. Lastly, there was another Naval Anti- Aircraft Training Center at Bird Rock, or Pacific Beach. This was a site where sailors would take a six-day course on anti-aircraft artillery. It was opened from 1942 to 1945 and trained about 300,000 sailors to shoot down aircrafts. In a separate and very small room, was a Japanese American side and point of view during the war. It was set up to look like what s room at the internment camps looked like. â€Å"Most Japanese were interned in 10 camps in remote areas of seven western states. No claim of humane intent could change the reality-these were concentration camps. (pg. 736). The room only included a bed and a suitcase which included bedding, a book and one outfit. On the largest wall was a map that displayed the location of all of the internment camps in the U.S and a copy of a poster of instructions for the Japanese living in these rooms. â€Å"Local newspapers there expressed confidence in the loyalty of Japanese Americans, who in any case were crucial to Hawaii’s economy(pg.736)† The room also displayed many newspaper articles, including one from the Los Angeles Examiner on March 23, 1942 announcing relocation of Japanese Americans from Los Angeles to internment camps. It was good to see an example of what kind of media was out during the time. Also in the room was the story of Hiomi Nakamura, a La Jollian born Japanese American who was first transported to a permanent relocation internment camp site, and later drafted to play a role in the was at a laboratory. Also, in this room I found my second artifact, small carvings. In all of the internment camps, people began making what they needed with whatever materials they could find. Scrap lumber became furniture, found metal became knives and for fun, scrap wood was carved into small, painted birds. These carvings were scrap wood paint metal which women also used as jewelry. To the right of this room continues on to an even smaller room. This part of the exhibit was the â€Å"blackout† room, covered with thick black sheets much like those were used by residents at the time to keep light inside their houses. People were so afraid the Japanese would attack that they had to turn out all of their lights at night. Blackouts were enacted to prevent enemy aircraft from reaching their targets by sight. They also helped prevent ships from being viewed in silhouette against the shore, and vulnerable to attack by enemy submarines. Traffic lights and car lights were covered in a way that would deflect their beams to the ground. This is where another one of my artifacts was inspired, a black sheet. These sheets were a source of protection and I feel it exploits a sense of nationalism as well. The community as a whole worked together in order to make sure all the light in their society was turned off. Nationalism is brought up many times in our textbook startin g with the growth of corporate businesses, to the acts of citizens during all three wars. Finally, came the last and second largest room. In this room I found my two remaining artifacts. This part of the exhibit displayed both men and women’s role during the war. It included stories from women who were living at home, while their men were at war. It provided the perspective of what it was like to be a women or even young mother in La Jolla in the 1940’s. Alongside of the roles played living on the home front, it also displayed the new roles women took inside the war itself. â€Å"World War II brought an end to the military as an exclusive male enclave that women entered only as nurses (pg.730).† At first the government discouraged women who wanted to perform some kind of military service. It soon became clear that the war was going to demand more than the government had expected. Women began to do technical jobs normally performed by men. One of the artifacts that I chose from this room was a nurse’s robe from the Red Cross. This robe was not just your typical plain robe but was covered in patches of each army man they had helped. I was barely able to even see any white apart of the original robe. I chose this artifact because it truly portrayed the crucial role women also played in the war. Our textbook gives us a brief overview from the changes of roles women played during the time of war, but the number of patches on this robe opened my eyes to how much more of an important factor these nurses played taking on a great amount of soldiers. The number of men these women helped were astounding, definitely portraying how import a women’s role was. On the other side of the room was a glassed display of a US Army Air force uniform from 1943-1945. It was considered to be the â€Å"Eisenhower jacket,† based on General Eisenhower. In the display were also a M1903 Springfield Rifle and a M1 Grand Rifle alongside what seemed to be a map. The other artifact that I chose from this room was a silk scar f. Now this long silk scarf had nothing to do with fashion, but proved to be a crucial navigation tool during the war. Allied pilots were issued with these scarves that had detailed maps of enemy territory printed on them. The silk scarves also denoted railroads, canals, roads, frontier, churches and lighthouses. Air Power Shrinks the Globe on page 743 of our textbook discusses the growth of airplanes over the period of time of war. â€Å"The Wellington flew 255 miles an hour and cruised as high as 12,000 feet, with a range of 2,200 miles, whereas the new B-29s could travel more than 350 miles an hour, at altitudes up to 30,000 feet, with a range of up to 5,000 miles. (Pg. 743)† At the time, this was a massive step in the evolution of aircrafts and aircrafts at war, but if we compare this to the type of technology we have in our airplanes it cannot compare. Many of us cannot find our ways around our own city without using our mobile devices to navigate us. These pilots were u sing maps printed on scarves to help direct them around! It is incredible. I believe that the site gave an exceptional insight of how life was like prior, during and after World War 11. Each room explained its story well by the display of artifacts, photographs and touching oral stories it presented. The facility was well outlined timeline which exposed a sequence of events. The exhibit related perfectly to the content of this class with all the information and artifacts it presented. Many of the things presented corresponded with what the book had to say about World War II, along with a lot of new material as well. Overall, I was very pleased to have been able to take a day off and visit the La Jolla Historical Society. I was able to learn a great deal of new material which contributed to a better understanding of what times were like during the war, not only as a nation but to the residents of La Jolla.

Angelas Ashes Comparative Commentary Essay Example for Free

Angelas Ashes Comparative Commentary Essay Although these two passages taken from the memoirs; Angelas Ashes by Frank McCourt and Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Sallinger, are similar to each other in some aspects, such as mood, perceptions and attitudes towards death etc., their society, culture, and their ages make the contrast between their styles. In the passage from Catcher in the Rye, we see the 17-years-old Holden going to his brother Allies grave. From his comments about his brothers death, we start to interpret his immature and irreverent character. I know its only his body and all thats in the cemetery, and his souls in Heaven and all that crap On the other hand, just like Frank McCourts, Holdens anger, sadness and resentment is seen by his mood and tone. The 5-years-old little Frankie is already witness to his sister Margarets death, and now he losts his little brother Oliver. In this scene, where Oliver is buried in the graveyard, Frankie tries to understand the things around him with his childish curiosity and responses. I did not want to leave Oliver with them. I threw a rock at a jackdaw that waddled over toward Olivers grave. Nevertheless, although his age, Holdens inability to come to terms with his brothers death makes him angry and resentful. All the visitors could get in their cars and turn on their radios and all and then go someplace nice for dinner everybody except Allie. I couldnt stand it. There are some hints in the passages which suggest about the culture, societies and time the two memoirs took place. Holden says the visitors could get in their cars and turn on their radios and all and then go someplace nice for dinner, whereas Frankie says we rode to the hospital in a carriage with a horse and My mother and Aunt Aggie cried, Grandma looked angry, Dad, Uncle Pa Keating, and Uncle Pat Sheehan looked sad but did not cry and I thought that if youre a mean you can cry only when you have the black stuff that is called the pint. The carriage with a horse and the people running like hell over to their cars and turn on their radios show us that the scene from Angelas Ashes took place many years before Catcher in the Rye. Moreover, with Frankies childish comment about his family, the men in his family appear as drinkers; this suggests about the Irish culture which all men are drinkers. The same comment also clearly shows us the difference between women and men in their culture. We also see that the two characters families and societies are Christian, and believe in the life after death. Holden says I know its only his body and all thats in the cemetery, and his souls in Heaven and all that crap, but I couldnt stand it anyway. On the other hand Frankie explains, Dad said I shouldnt throw rocks at jackdaws, they might be somebodys soul. I didnt know what a soul was but I didnt ask him because I didnt care. Their perception towards religion is the same; they both believe in what is taught to them, but in both cases the characters sadness and anger are much greater then their religion now, when they lost their brothers whom they love and were connected so much. I wish he wasnt there. You didnt know him. If youd known him, youd know what I mean. Oliver was dead and I hated jackdaws. Both Frankie and Holden are alone with their thoughts and feelings; they cannot share them with anyone. Holden is too immature and powerless to face his brothers death and Frankies parents wouldnt answer his question marks about death. The two narrative characters cannot talk about or express their sorrow, they have to keep it inside and divert it into anger and hate of other things or people around them. Id be a man someday and Id come with a bag of rocks and Id leave the graveyard littered with dead jackdaws. All the visitors in the cemetery started running like hell over to their cars. Thats what nearly drove me crazy. Hence the two characters need to heal theirselves by something else; writing.

Land Resources Land As A Resource Environmental Sciences Essay

Land Resources Land As A Resource Environmental Sciences Essay Land or soil is one of the natural bases for human life and social development. Soils are defined and characterized on the basis of their morphological profiles because the assemblage of obvious physical features represented by these units are often related to the less obvious features of their chemical composition, chemical properties, and fertility. Men have tilled the soil and irrigated and drained it for at least six millennia. This is basic to civilization. Systematic scientific study of agriculture began in the first half of the nineteenth century, along with physical studies of the soil. In its natural state, the soil is normally a three-component porous medium consisting of solid soil particles, water, and air. Much of the water involved in the hydrologic cycle is located in soil between the time of its arrival as rain at the soil surface and that of its return to the atmosphere. The processes of water movement in soil play a central part in the scientific study of the terrestrial sector of the hydrologic cycle and in the problems of dry-land and irrigated agriculture, of plant ecology, and of soil biology. These determine the transport of materials in solution such as natural salts, fertilizers, and urban and industrial wastes through the soil. Properties such as infiltration, drainage, and retention of water in the soil layers; extraction of water by plant roots; and the evaporation of water from the soil are also important. The solid phase of the soil has mineral and organic matter, which is usually highly colloidal, seldom exceeds 5-10% by weight of soil. In an agricultural context, the main interest in soil structure is in terms of soil tilth, which is related to the ability of aggregates to maintain their integrity when the soil is irrigated, tilled, or otherwise worked so that water retention and drainage and aeration are kept at favorable levels. As soil is a complex mixture of many components there is usually little value in determining the amount of a chemical element present without any indication of the fraction of the soil in which it occurs and its form of combination. Indeed, fractions that comprise only a small proportion of the total soil mass are often very important in determining its behavior. The following is a convenient classification of soil fractions: The Organic Fraction, The Mineral Fraction, Soluble in water: Simple inorganic ions, Soluble in dilute acids: Carbonates, Insoluble in dilute acids. Primary minerals mainly occur in sand and silt fractions; secondary minerals usually occur in the clay fraction ( Organic Fraction Organic materials are added to soils as dead plant and animal remains. They are decomposed by the microflora and microfauna to form humus, an amorphous material distinct from undecomposed litter. Well-humified organic matter contains about 58 % carbon, so the amount of the soil organic fraction is usually specified by determining the organic carbon content and multiplying it by 1.73. Organic contents range from zero in some mineral subsoils, through 1 to 10 % in arable topsoils, to nearly 100% (of the dry weight) in some peat and muck soils. The amounts in surface soils depend on the balance between accumulation and decomposition, and these processes in turn are influenced by temperature and moisture content. Apart from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the organic fraction contains nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus. The proportions of these elements are often expressed as ratios compared to nitrogen taken as 10, and typical values are C:N = 80-150:10, S:N = 1.2-1.5:10, and P:N = 0.2-3.0:10. Metals such as aluminum, iron, manganese, and copper are also found in small amounts in humic complexes. The organic compounds in humus are very different. The main portion appears to consist of polymers, some of which are formed by random condensation of phenols, amino acids, and other related microbial degradation products. A large number of compounds have been isolated from humus extracts, but many of these must be artifacts. Of particular interest, apart from the polyphenols, are amino acids (implying that humus contains protein), sugars (indicating carbohydrate fractions), and amino sugars. The sulfur seems to be part of the main humus fraction, probably as sulfur-containing amino acids and organic sulphates. In some soils, much of the organic phosphorus is present as inositol polyphosphates, which appear not to be an integral part of the humus. Water-soluble Components The soluble-salt content of most soils is low so that the soil solution typically contains between 5 and 25 mmol/L of calcium and magnesium salts, mainly as nitrate. In saline soils, however, the salt content is of the order of 100 mmol/L, and although still less than 1% of the soil mass, the soluble salts dominate the behavior of the soil and include also sodium (Na+), chloride (Cl-), bicarbonate (HCO3-), and sulphate (SO4) ions. The salt content is normally determined in a saturation extract prepared by wetting the soil until it is just saturated with water and filtering off the extract under reduced pressure. The filtrate may be analyzed chemically, but a rapid indication of the degree of salinity is given by measuring its electrical conductivity. Conductivity values above 4 milliSiemens (mS) indicate that crop production may be reduced by salt damage, while above 20 mS only salt-tolerant species can survive. The approximate conductivity at 25Â °C of a 100 mmol/L solution referred to above is 8-10 mS. The reaction of soil is one of its most important diagnostic parameters. It is given by a pH measurement on the saturation extract or on a suspension of soil in water or in a dilute electrolyte solution. Strongly acid soils may have pH values down to 3.5, and strongly alkaline soils as high as 9.5, but more typical pH values of soils range from 5 to 8. Carbonates In soils formed from limestone rocks or other carbonate-containing sediments, carbonates occur mainly as calcite (CaCO3) but sometimes also as dolomite [(Ca, Mg)CO3]. They are important in the buffer system that controls the pH and cation balance of soil, and also for their reactions with anions, particularly phosphate. In their reactions with anions, the particle size and surface area of the soil carbonates are more important than the amount. Amounts of soil carbonate are estimated from the carbon dioxide evolved when the soil is treated with dilute acid, the results being expressed as a percentage by weight of the soil. In a leaching environment, soil carbonate is gradually removed by solution in carbonated water [CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 = Ca(HCO3)2] so that topsoils contain less carbonate than subsoils or the parent material. The leached carbonate may be concentrated by chemical precipitation at depth in the soil profile. Primary Minerals Soil analysis includes the separation and determination of sand, silt, and clay fractions by sieving and sedimentation. The mineral matter of soils is directly inherited from the parent material, although its composition is usually different depending on the age of the soil and the resistance of minerals to weathering. The minerals in the sand and silt fractions are mainly quartz and feldspars, plus a host of accessory minerals. Only the most resistant primary minerals remain in advanced stages of soil development, i.e., quartz (SiO2) as the major component, with smaller amounts of heavy metal oxides such as hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4), and rutile (TiO2). Secondary Minerals The clay-sized ( Land Degradation Land degradation making the land unsuitable for habitat construction and agriculture has become a major problem in recent times. This has threatened the world food production as soil quality degradation results in severe reduction in crop yield. It is estimated that 15 percent of the worlds total land area has not maintained its quality due to a number of problems that include erosion, nutrient decline, salinization and physical compaction. The countries which are mainly dependent on agriculture as a national resource suffer more from the effects of land degradation. Some of the major soil degradation processes and the causes for them are given below. Loss of topsoil by erosion/surface wash. This results in a decrease in depth of the topsoil layer due to more or less uniform removal of soil material by run-off water. The possible causes are inappropriate land management especially in agriculture (insufficient soil cover, unobstructed flow of run-off water, deteriorating soil structure) leading to excessive surface run-off and sediment transport. Terrain deformation is an irregular displacement of soil material (by linear erosion or mass movement) causing clearly visible scars in the terrain. The possible causes are inappropriate land management in agriculture forestry or construction activities, allowing excessive amounts of run-off water to concentrate and flow unobstructed. Fertility decline and reduced organic matter content resulting in a net decrease of available nutrients and organic matter in the soil. This is likely to be due to imbalance between output (through harvesting, burning, leaching, etc.) and input (through manure/fertilizers, returned crop residues, flooding) of nutrients and organic matter. Soil contamination indicates the presence of an alien substance in the soil without significant negative effects and soil pollution signifies soil degradation as a consequence of location, concentration and adverse biological or toxic effects of a substance. The source of pollution may be waste dumps, spills, factory wasted, etc. The source can also be diffuse or airborne (atmospheric deposition of acidifying compounds and/or heavy metals. Eutrophication with the presence of an excess of certain soil nutrients, impairing plant growth. The possible causes are imbalanced application of organic and chemical fertilizer resulting in excess nitrogen, phosphorus; liming. Compaction resulting in deterioration of soil structure by trampling by cattle or the weight and/or frequent use of machinery. The possible causes are repeated use of heavy machinery, having a cumulative effect. Heavy grazing and overstocking may lead to compaction as well. Factors that influence compaction are ground pressure (by axle/wheel loads of the machinery used); frequency of the passage of heavy machinery; soil texture; soil moisture; climate. Sealing and crusting which is clogging of pores with fine soil material and development of a thin impervious layer at the soil surface obstructing the infiltration of rainwater. The possible causes are poor soil cover, allowing a maximum splash effect of raindrops; destruction of soil structure and low organic matter. Waterlogging that results from effects of human induced hydromorphism (i.e. excluding paddy fields). The possible causes are rising water table (e.g. due to construction of reservoirs/irrigation) and/or increased flooding caused by higher peak-flows. Lowering of the soil surface resulting from subsidence of organic soils, settling of soil. The possible causes are oxidation of peat and settling of soils in general due to lowering of the water table; solution of gypsum in the sub-soil (human-induced) or lowering of soil surface due to extraction of gas or water Loss of productive function which results from soil (land) being taken out of production for non-bio-productive activities, but not the eventual secondary degrading effects of these activities. The possible causes are urbanization and industrial activities; infrastructure; mining; quarrying, etc. Aridification, which is the decrease of average soil moisture content. The possible causes are lowering of groundwater tables for agricultural purposes or drinking water extraction; decreased soil cover and reduced organic matter content. Salinisation / alkalinization which is a net increase of the salt content of the (top)soil leading to a productivity decline. The possible causes are a distinction can be made between salinity problems due to intrusion of seawater (which may occur under all climate conditions) and inland salinisation, caused by improper irrigation methods and/or evaporation of saline groundwater. Dystrification, which is the lowering of soil pH through the process of mobilizing or increasing acidic compounds in the soil. Worldwide, almost 2,000Â  million hectares of land show at least minor signs of degradation, corresponding to approximately 1% of the ice-free surface. Around 300Â  million hectares of land surface are already seriously degraded. Soil degradation situation in India is shown in Fig. 2.10. Population growth and soil Population growth exerts enormous pressure on soils, and the soil degradation is due to additional migration and urbanization processes. The higher the rate of global population growth, the higher is the demand on the soil functions. There is already a growing disparity between growth-related demand and the availability of land. Many states are no longer capable of feeding their own populations with domestic agricultural products because they do not have enough land. Given the speed of population growth and the level of soil degradation already apparent, an increasing scarcity of soils available for meeting competing demands is expected. Two case studies of soil degradation 1. The Sahel Region The problems of soil degradation and desertification in the Sahel can be attributed to changes in nature as well as to socioeconomic causes. The nomadic groups in the Sahel are increasingly restricted in the mobility and flexibility that once provided them with a secure basis for ecological adaptation. Growing competition from other forms of land use, political measures and unclear or disadvantageous land-use rights led to their sedentarisation; they were pushed into more marginalized locations much less suitable for grazing livestock. The sensitive soils and ecosystems in the region are degraded as a result, mainly due to overgrazing. Subsistence farmers are similarly affected by displacement to marginal land that is unsuitable for farming. Greater mechanization without parallel soil protection measures (erosion protection, and suitable irrigation) has negative effects on the soils. Finally, cash crops (cotton, groundnuts) on fertile soils is not pursued in a sustainable fashion. These monocultures are farmed with the help of machines and pesticides, both of which can cause great problems. The Sahel also undergone tremendous social changes caused by internal and external conditions. Of importance is the general neglect of rural concerns and the orientation to agrarian export production through large-scale capital-intensive projects in the agricultural sector. External factors can be identified both in the global economic conditions (agricultural subsidies and/or export policies of the industrial nations, international debt) and in the practice of international development organizations, which in the past were not geared to the principle of sustainability, and which through their orientation to production technology gave too little consideration to the existing development potential. If the complex problems faced by the Sahel are to be solved, greater attention must be given to the socioeconomic causes and to organizational and financial decentralization. 2. The Leipzig-Halle-Bitterfeld region The soils in the Leipzig-Halle-Bitterfeld region are contaminated, in some cases alarmingly, by depositions of airborne pollutants through deliberate depositing of inorganic and organic substances. A prime cause of this contamination was the concentration of chemical industries, mining and energy production, all of which used outdated production methods. Since the turn of the century, there have been five brown coal mining fields, and large-scale chemical plants developed in Bitterfeld (paints and dyes), Leuna (methanol, nitrogen) and Buna (synthetic rubber). For economically and environmentally sound development of the region, soil remediation and the removal of contaminated soil are a matter of urgency, which requires considerable support from the state or from outside the region. Fig. 2.10. Soil degradation in India Landslide In a landslide, masses of rock, earth, or debris move down a slope. Landslides may be small or large, slow or rapid. They are activated by: storms, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, fires, alternate freezing or thawing, and steepening of slopes by erosion or human modification. Debris and mudflows are rivers of rock, earth, and other debris saturated with water. They develop when water rapidly accumulates in the ground, during heavy rainfall or rapid snowmelt, changing the earth into a flowing river of mud or slurry. They can flow rapidly, striking with little or no warning at avalanche speeds. They can travel several miles from their source, growing in size as they pick up trees, boulders, and other materials. Landslide problems can be caused by land mismanagement, particularly in mountain, canyon, and coastal regions. In areas burned by forest and brush fires, a lower threshold of precipitation may initiate landslides. Land-use zoning, professional inspections, and proper design can minimize many landslide, mudflow, and debris flow problems. Protection from a landslide or debris flow (a) Guidelines for the period following a landslide: Stay away from the slide area. There may be danger of additional slides. Listen to local radio or television stations for the latest emergency information. Watch for flooding, which may occur after a landslide or debris flow. Floods sometimes follow landslides and debris flows because they may both be started by the same event. Check for injured and trapped persons near the slide, without entering the direct slide area. Ask for rescuers and give them correct locations. Help a neighbor who may require special assistance infants, elderly people, and people with disabilities. Elderly people and people with disabilities may require additional assistance. People who care for them or who have large families may need additional assistance in emergency situations. Inform appropriate authorities about damaged roadways, railways, electricity lines and other utilities. Reporting potential hazards will get the utilities turned off as quickly as possible, preventing further damage. Check building foundation, chimney, and surrounding land for damage. Damage to foundations, chimneys, or surrounding land may help assess the safety of the area. Replant damaged ground as soon as possible since erosion caused by loss of ground cover can lead to flash flooding and additional landslides in the near future. Seek advice from a geotechnical expert for evaluating landslide hazards or designing corrective techniques to reduce landslide risk. A professional will be able to advise you of the best ways to prevent or reduce landslide risk, without creating further hazard. (b) During a Landslide or Debris Flow What one should do if a landslide or debris flow occurs: Stay alert and awake. Many debris-flow fatalities occur when people are sleeping. Listen to radio or television for warnings of intense rainfall. Be aware that intense, short bursts of rain may be particularly dangerous, especially after longer periods of heavy rainfall and damp weather. If you are in areas susceptible to landslides and debris flows, consider leaving if it is safe to do so. Remember that driving during an intense storm can be hazardous. If you remain at home, move to a second story if possible. Staying out of the path of a landslide or debris flow saves lives. Listen for any unusual sounds that might indicate moving debris, such as trees cracking or boulders knocking together. A trickle of flowing or falling mud or debris may precede larger landslides. Moving debris can flow quickly and sometimes without warning. If one is near a stream or channel, he should be alert for any sudden increase or decrease in water flow and for a change from clear to muddy water. Such changes may indicate landslide activity upstream, so be prepared to move quickly. Dont delay! Save yourself, not your belongings. Be especially alert when driving. Embankments along roadsides are particularly susceptible to landslides. Watch the road for collapsed pavement, mud, fallen rocks, and other indications of possible debris flows. (c) What to do in case of Imminent Landslide Danger Contact your local fire, police, or public works department. Local officials are the best persons able to assess potential danger. Inform affected neighbors. Your neighbors may not be aware of potential hazards. Advising them of a potential threat may help save lives. Help neighbors who may need assistance to evacuate. Evacuate. Getting out of the path of a landslide or debris flow is your best protection. Curl into a tight ball and protect your head if escape is not possible. (d) Before a Landslide or Debris Flow Protect yourself from the effects of a landslide or debris flow: Do not build near steep slopes, close to mountain edges, near drainage ways, or natural erosion valleys. Get a ground assessment of your property. Contact local officials, geological surveys or departments of natural resources, and university departments of geology. Landslides occur where they have before, and in identifiable hazard locations. Ask for information on landslides in your area, specific information on areas vulnerable to landslides, and request a professional referral for a very detailed site analysis of your property, and corrective measures you can take, if necessary. If you are at risk from a landslide talk to your insurance agent. Debris flow may be covered by flood insurance policies. Minimize home hazards Have flexible pipe fittings installed to avoid gas or water leaks, as flexible fittings are more resistant to breakage (only the Gas Company or professionals should install gas fittings). Plant ground cover on slopes and build retaining walls. In mudflow areas, build channels or deflection walls to direct the flow around buildings. Remember: If you build walls to divert debris flow and the flow lands on a neighbors property, you may be liable for damages. Recognize Landslide Warning Signs Changes occur in your landscape such as patterns of storm-water drainage on slopes (especially the places where runoff water converges) land movement, small slides, flows, or progressively leaning trees. Doors or windows stick or jam for the first time. New cracks appear in plaster, tile, brick, or foundations. Outside walls, walks, or stairs begin pulling away from the building. Slowly developing, widening cracks appear on the ground or on paved areas such as streets or driveways. Underground utility lines break. Bulging ground appears at the base of a slope. Water breaks through the ground surface in new locations. Fences, retaining walls, utility poles, or trees tilt or move. Faint rumbling sound that increases in volume is noticeable as the landslide nears. The ground slopes downward in one direction and may begin shifting in that direction under your feet. Unusual sounds, such as trees cracking or boulders knocking together, might indicate moving debris. Collapsed pavement, mud, fallen rocks, and other indications of possible debris flow can be seen when driving (embankments along roadsides are particularly susceptible to landslides). Desertification The most critical and increasing threat to sustainable land use is desertification. It is estimated that desertification affects one-quarter of the total land area of the world, or about 70 percent of all dry lands, and threatens the livelihoods of over 1 billion people in more than 100 countries. Desertification is closely linked with rural poverty and hunger. It exacerbates conditions leading to famine, migration, internal displacement, political instability and conflict. Desertification is the degradation of land in arid, semi arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various climatic variations, but primarily from human activities. Current desertification is taking place much faster worldwide and usually arises from the demands of increasing population that settle on the land in order to grow crops and graze animals. A major impact of desertification is loss of biodiversity and productive capacity, for example, by transition from grassland to perennial shrubs. The change in vegetation induces desertification. In the Madagascar, 10% of the entire country has been lost to desertification due to zoom agriculture by indigenous people. In Africa, with current trends of soil degradation, the continent will be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025 according to one estimate. Deserts may be separated from the surroundings by less arid areas, mountains and other landforms. In other areas, there is a gradual transition from a dry to a more humid environment, making it more difficult to determine the desert border. These transition zones have very fragile, delicately balanced ecosystems. Desert fringes are a mosaic of microclimates. Small hollows support vegetation that picks up heat from the hot winds and protects the land from the prevailing winds. After rainfall the vegetated areas are distinctly cooler than the surroundings. In these marginal areas human activity may stress the ecosystem beyond its tolerance limit, resulting in degradation of the land. By pounding the soil with their hooves, livestock compact the substrate, increase the proportion of fine material, and reduce the percolation rate of the soil, thus encouraging erosion by wind and water. Grazing and collection of firewood reduce or eliminate plants that help to bind the soil. In large desert areas, sand dunes can encroach on human habitats. Sand dunes move through wind. In a major dust storm, dunes may move tens of meters. And like snow, sand avalanches, falling down the steep slopes of the dunes that face away from the winds, move the dunes forward. Droughts by themselves cannot cause desertification. Drought is just a contributing factor. The causes are social and economic, having to do with access to resources, power and economics. Droughts are common in arid and semiarid lands, and well-managed lands can recover from drought when the rains return. Continued land abuse during droughts, however, increases land degradation. Increased population and livestock pressure on marginal lands has accelerated desertification. In some areas, nomads moving to less arid areas disrupt the local ecosystem and increase the rate of erosion of the land. Nomads are trying to escape the desert, but because of their land-use practices, they bring the desert with them. Some arid and semi-arid lands can support crops, but additional pressure from greater population or decreases in rainfall can lead to the disappearance of the few plants present. The soil becomes exposed to wind, causing soil particles to be deposited elsewhere. The top layer becomes eroded. With the removal of shade, rates of evaporation increase and salts become drawn up to the surface. This is salinisation, which inhibits plant growth. The loss of plants causes less moisture to be retained in the area, which may change the climate pattern leading to lower rainfall. The degradation of formerly productive land is a complex process. It involves multiple causes, and it proceeds at varying rates in different climates. Desertification may intensify a general climatic trend toward greater aridity, or it may initiate a change in local climate. Desertification does not occur in linear, easily mappable patterns. Deserts advance erratically, forming patches on their borders. Areas far from natural deserts can degrade quickly to barren soil, rock, or sand through poor land management. The presence of a nearby desert has no direct relationship to desertification. Unfortunately, an area undergoing desertification is brought to public attention only after the process is well under way. Often little data are available to indicate the previous state of the ecosystem or the rate of degradation. Combating desertification is complex and difficult. Over-exploitation of the land and climate variations can have identical impacts, which makes it very difficult to choose the right mitigation strategy. Measures like reforestation cannot achieve their goals if global warming continues. Forests may die when it gets drier, and more frequent extreme events could become a threat for agriculture, water supply, and infrastructure. Current desertification Overgrazing and to a lesser extent drought in the 1930s transformed parts of the Great Plains in the United States into the Dust Bowl. During that time, a considerable fraction of the population abandoned their homes to escape the unproductive lands. Improved agricultural and water management have prevented a disaster of the earlier magnitude from recurring, but desertification presently affects millions of people with primary occurrence in the less developed countries. Desertification is widespread in many areas of the Peoples Republic of China. The populations of rural areas have increased along with an increase in the livestock; the land available for grazing has decreased. Importing of European cattle, which have higher food intakes, has made things worse. Human overpopulation is leading to destruction of tropical wet and dry forests, due to widening practices of zoom cultivation. Deforestation has led to large scale erosion, loss of soil nutrients and sometimes total desertification. Overgrazing has made the Rio Puerco Basin of central New Mexico one of the most eroded river basins of the western United States and has increased the high sediment content of the river. Overgrazing is also an issue with some regions of South Africa such as the Waterberg Massif, although restoration of native habitat and game has been pursued vigorously since 1980. The Desert of Maine is a 40-acre dune of glacial silt near Freeport, Maine. Overgrazing and soil erosion exposed the cap of the dune, revealing the desert as a small patch that continued to grow, overtaking the land. Ghana and Nigeria currently experience desertification; in the latter, desertification overtakes about 1,355 square miles of land per year. The Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, are also affected. More than 80% of Afghanistans land is subject to soil erosion and desertification. In Kazakhstan, nearly half of the cropland has been abandoned since 1980. In Iran, sand storms were said to have bur